SPORTS

Most Expensive Sports in the World

Here we will talk about list of top 10 most expensive sports in the world. We all know that trends are now much changed in the world and people are more focused towards sports. Sports are the best way to relax from the normal routines and do something different. Mostly specialists say that sports keep the people healthy and good for the mind as well. There are many kinds of sports, in which some of them can be easily played at home with all things used in them but some sports are very expensive and difficult to play at home. These sports are conducted through some special tournaments and shows to display them for all over the world. Anyone can participate in these types of sports if he or she is capable of playing them. All other normal kind of sports can be played at any time but these cannot be played or cannot be taken as career. 

The following are top 10 most expensive sports in the world:

10. Equestrian:

It is very famous sport which involves driving, riding and chasing with horses. We all know that riding a horse is the most favorite sport of many people. It is basically very rare sport played with only limited number of people due to its high cost. As the cost of training and keeping a horse for all these kind of sports are very expensive and their traveling expenses are also very high. The cost of taking a horse to some this kind of event can cost almost $200,000 each year. In this amount the cost of horse is not included which is very expensive as well.

9. Polo:

Polo is very famous sports also in countries like UK. This sport is always associated with upper class and rich people due to its high cost. Its cost is high as expenses on horse their maintenance and all other are very high. Mostly polo players have to keep 4 horses in order to keep some as backup plan. The matches conducted for polo can cost almost $150,000. Mostly polo matches are sponsored by famous companies which cost up to $1,000,000 which is very expensive and high charges. The one problem in this sport it causes many serious injuries to the polo players.

8. Formula 1:

Formula 1 is very famous sport and is very expensive as well due to high cost involved in it especially medical charges as injuries in it are very serious. The main point of this sport is that all drivers have to own their own cars which are usually the most expensive sports cars all over the world. It is basically a motor racing game in which the driver drives the car through different routes. Mostly sponsors are there to make these events possible to very high cost. A single race costs about $190,000. It is very famous sport in many countries especially in Dubai.

7. Sailing:

No one will be surprise to see this sport in this list as it is very expensive as well. For this sport, boats are very important and all the riders have to own their own boats and all equipment required in this game. In this game, a sailing vessel used can cost almost $100 million. Once the whole equipment is purchased then this game is not at all expensive. It only occurs in some special months and the whole year boats are stored without any reason. Mostly boats are kept on dry places then it is expensive to take them into water.

6. Pentathlon:

This is very expensive sport because participation in this game cost large amount. Its training and equipment used in this is also very expensive. The people participating in this sport have to spend on further 5 sports which are running, swimming, shooting, jumping and fencing as well which is very good experience. The cost incurred on the equipment and keeping them is very expensive as maintaining guns and purchasing them cost large amount of money.

5. Wingsuiting:

It is very different and interesting sport in which humans are thrown in the air wearing jumpsuit and they have to fly in them. People will be shocked to know that wingsuit is not expensive it only cost about $2,500. The most expensive thing in this sport is the money spent on going up and coming down safely. As people have to take special training, rent a plane, pilot and insurance as well. But the events conducted for these sports are very expensive due to all expenses incurred on the event.

4. Bobsledding:

This interesting game was introduced in Winter Olympics. This was first performed by the American star Lolo Jones as she got training after 2012. It is similar to F1 and requires a lot of sponsorship due to very high expenses. It can cost about $25,000 for bobsleds while training expenses are separate. People will not believe that construction of bobsled can cost about millions of dollars. It is basically a team sport in which there are four members which shows cost will also four times greater.

3. Hot Air Balloon Racing:

Mostly people did not know about hot air balloon race in the world or it is basically a sport. An individual has to pay $300 for one hour ride on the balloon. Mostly people participating in them own their own balloons which are very expensive. A hot air balloon cost about $20,000 if purchased. Some measures must be adopted to participate in this sport like safety measures. The cost of training a pilot on these balloons cost about $3000 to go on these balloons.

2. Ski Jumping:

Ski jumping is very famous and interesting sport in the world. The equipment used in this sport can cost about $2,500. The recreational ski jumping is very expensive and can only be affordable by the rich people. A jumper has to spend almost $100,000 to go for this ride. It is also insured because of high risk in this game.

1. The Whitianga Festival of Sports:

The most expensive sport in the world is Whitianga festival of speed. It is very famous sport that is conducted in New Zealand in every year. It has helicopter used in it, boat, ski racing and helicopter racing as well. In this sport there is basically a competition between one another. Owning and keeping the equipment for this game are very expensive and requires about millions of dollars. It is the most expensive sports teams in the world as well.

COMPUTING

Artificial intelligence

is the intelligence exhibited by machines or software. It is also the name of the academic field of study which studies how to create computers and computer software that are capable of intelligent behavior. Major AI researchers and textbooks define this field as "the study and design of intelligent agents", in which anintelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1955, defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines".

AI research is highly technical and specialized, and is deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other.Some of the division is due to social and cultural factors: subfields have grown up around particular institutions and the work of individual researchers. AI research is also divided by several technical issues. Some subfields focus on the solution of specific problems. Others focus on one of several possible approaches or on the use of a particular tool or towards the accomplishment of particular applications.

The central problems (or goals) of AI research include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, natural language processing (communication), perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence is still among the field's long-term goals. Currently popular approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence and traditional symbolic AI. There are a large number of tools used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics, and many others. The AI field is interdisciplinary, in which a number of sciences and professions converge, including computer science, mathematics,psychology, linguistics, philosophy and neuroscience, as well as other specialized fields such as artificial psychology.

The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, human intelligence—the sapience of Homo sapiens—"can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it." This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings endowed with human-like intelligence, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of tremendous optimism but has also suffered stunningsetbacks. Today it has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most challenging problems in computer science.

SOCIAL SCIENCES

Pollution

For most of the time that humans have inhabited the earth our wastes were only of significance on a local level. In recent decades society has started to take seriously the impact of human actions on the planet in a broader sense. Pollution of the air, land and water comes from a variety of sources and continues to be a major issue for communities and countries across the globe. While measures have been taken to address pollution in various ways across many dimensions – from local waste collection and recycling programs to international hazardous waste protocols -- globalization has magnified the problems as pollution is often exported along with good and services. One of the major challenges of the 21st century is to find ways for a growing human population to reduce the amount and impact of contaminants we discharge to our shared natural resources.

Air Pollution & Air Quality

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or microscopic organisms into the atmosphere; in particular, when concentrations of those substances cause adverse metabolic change to humans or other species. The most common and widespread air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. 

Presently, the greatest occurrences of air pollution are in China, India, Indonesia, South Africa, Brazil, Mexico and Argentina. Each year air pollution is the cause of millions of human deaths, and even larger numbers of respiratory, circulatory, and cancer-related disease occurrences. Also, indoor air pollution is a significant source of human death and disease—mortality and morbidity—through indoor burning of wood and charcoal (especially in developing countries), tobacco smoking, radon trapping and a host of chemical substances found in paints, printing supplies and cleaning products.

PHILOSOPHY

Marxism

Marxism is the movement founded by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels which fights for the self-emancipation of the working class, subjecting all forms of domination by the bourgeoisie, its institutions and its ideology, to theoretical and practical critique.

Standing for the destruction of the capitalist state by the organised working class, Marxism is opposes all forms of reformism and “gradualism” or “evolutionary socialism”; Marxism is Revolutionary.

Marxism shares with other progressive social movements an uncompromising hostility to all forms of domination — sexism, racism, and so on, but what marks Marxism out from other progressive movements is that Marxists struggle always to overcome the manifold forms of domination and exploitation in and through the self-emancipation of the working class. Thus Marxism is Revolutionary Socialism.

While Marxism stands for the destruction of the capitalist state, and has as its aim the withering away of the state and all forms of institutionalised violence, Marxists not only support the right of the working class to exercise a domination over the bourgeoisie, they actively fight for that, since the dictatorship of the proletariat is the possible way to destroy bourgeois rule and open the way to the disappearance of all classes, including the class of wage-slaves. Marxism has its origins in the struggle for this perspective, in opposition to anarchism which seeks to undermine all forms of authority and seeks destruction of the capitalist state without promoting and preparing the working class for the seizure and holding of public political power.

Social power and relations of domination are transmitted in many different forms, aside from the state, nevertheless “concentrated force is required to overthrow concentrated force”, so Marxists always struggle to develop the organised strength of the workers movement. Freedom is always limited by the opportunities that the community provides for the development of a personality. Freedom is not enhanced simply by the removal of limitations on the autonomy of individuals. Marxists aim to enhance the freedom of working class people chiefly by expanding the scope of collective action and the possibilities for individual growth and creativity within that.

Marxism is a tendency within the workers movement and it is concerned with both theoretical and practical critique. By “practical critique” is meant political action which undermines and “exposes” the object and mobilises opposition to it. In the history of the movement, these two sides — the theoretical and the practical — have from time to time become separated from one another; one the one side “academic Marxism” working on theoretical questions in relative isolation from the workers’ movement, on the other genuine communists doing battle for the working class, but isolated from the creative development of revolutionary Marxist ideas.

PHYSICAL

SOUND

sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave of pressure and displacement, through a medium such asair or water. In physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves and their perception by the brain.

Sound can propagate through compressible media such as air, water and solids as longitudinal waves and also as a transverse waves in solids (see Longitudinal and transverse waves, below). The sound waves are generated by a sound source, such as the vibrating diaphragm of a stereo speaker. The sound source creates vibrations in the surrounding medium. As the source continues to vibrate the medium, the vibrations propagate away from the source at the speed of sound, thus forming the sound wave. At a fixed distance from the source, the pressure, velocity, and displacement of the medium vary in time. At an instant in time, the pressure, velocity, and displacement vary in space. Note that the particles of the medium do not travel with the sound wave. This is intuitively obvious for a solid, and the same is true for liquids and gases (that is, the vibrations of particles in the gas or liquid transport the vibrations, while the average position of the particles over time does not change). During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attenuated by the medium.

The behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three things:

• A relationship between density and pressure. This relationship, affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium.
• The propagation is also affected by the motion of the medium itself. For example, sound moving through wind. Independent of the motion of sound through the medium, if the medium is moving, the sound is further transported.
• The viscosity of the medium also affects the motion of sound waves. It determines the rate at which sound is attenuated. For many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible.

When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical properties, it may be refracted (either dispersed or focused).The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound are able to travel through all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.

LITERATURE

Investing early: improving language development in the early years 

We make the case for prioritising action to improve early language skills among the poorest children. Children’s early language skills have a major impact on the development of their literacy skills. Yet one in five young children in England are not reaching the expected level of communication and language skills for their age, rising to one in four children from disadvantaged backgrounds. All three- and four-year-olds in England, as well as two-year-olds from disadvantaged backgrounds, are entitled to free part-time early education. Universal free early education provides a strong foundation for a world-class early education system that enables all young children to build good early language skills. There is a major opportunity to capitalise on this foundation by significantly strengthening the quality of the early education workforce. Our priorities for early years education over the next parliament are: 

1. Early education in every nursery in England to be led by an early years graduate by 2020, with government support initially focused on nurseries serving children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

2. Every nursery in England to have at least one non-graduate member of staff with an intermediate level qualification in young children’s speech, language and communication. 

3. The creation of a cross-departmental early years minister to coordinate Whitehall strategy and delivery on early years services across health, education and local government

MATH

How to Estimate Hours Left Until Sunset

Do you know that math can help you survive? I’m not talking about jobs, money, and feeding yourself—I mean the lost in the wilderness, life depends on it kind of surviving. How does this work? Keep on reading The Math Dude to find out

Have you ever watched the show Survivorman? Or any of the numerous other shows of that ilk? I must admit I went through a phase a few years ago that involved a fair bit of survival expert program binging. Not only were the shows entertaining, but I learned a few things that could come in handy someday.

As it turns out, one of the things I was enlightened to learn involves a lovely combination of math and astronomy (my favorite, exquisitely delicious pairing.)

What could it be? And how can math help you escape a wilderness disaster and survive? Those are exactly the questions we’ll be answering today.

Math to the Rescue?

Here’s the scenario: You're hiking in the remote wilderness with a friend, when one of you gets sick. High fever and fatigue has slowed your walking down to a snail's pace, and it’s becoming increasingly clear that you and your friend are not going to make it back to camp before the sun sets and the temperature drops.

What do you do? You shake yourself awake from that awful dream, get off the couch, turn of the TV, stop watching so many episodes of Survivorman, and go climb into bed.

CHEMISTRY

SALT

a salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of related numbers of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negative ions) so that the product is electrically neutral (without a net charge). These component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride (Cl−), or organic, such as acetate (CH3CO2-); and can be monatomic, such as fluoride (F−), or polyatomic, such as sulfate (SO42−).

There are several varieties of salts. Salts that hydrolyze to produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are basic salts, whilst those that hydrolyze to produce hydronium ions in water are acidic salts. Neutral salts are those that are neither acid nor basic salts. Zwitterions contain an anionic centre and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered to be salts. Examples of zwitterions include amino acids, many metabolites, peptides, and proteins.

Usually, non-dissolved salts at standard temperature and pressure are solid, but there are exceptions (see Molten saltsand ionic liquids).

Molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts (e.g., sodium chloride in water) are called electrolytes, as they are able to conduct electricity. As observed in the cytoplasm of cells, in blood, urine, plant saps and mineral waters, mixtures of many different ions in solution usually do not form defined salts after evaporation of the water. Therefore, their salt content is given for the respective ions.

HISTORY

HISTORY OF PROSTITUTION

The history of prostitution extends to all ancient and modern cultures.It has been described euphemistically as "the world's oldest profession"

Prostitution was common in ancient Israel, despite being tacitly forbidden by Jewish Law. Within the religion of Canaan, a significant portion of temple prostitutes were male. It was widely used in Sardinia and in some of the Phoenician cultures, usually in honour of the goddess ‘Ashtart. Presumably under the influence of the Phoenicians,this practice was developed in other ports of the Mediterranean Sea, such as Erice (Sicily), Locri Epizephiri, Croton, Rossano Vaglio, and Sicca Veneria. Other hypotheses include Asia Minor, Lydia, Syria and the Etruscans.

The Biblical story of Judah and Tamar (Genesis 38) provides a depiction of prostitution as practiced in the society of the time. The prostitute plies her trade at the side of a highway, waiting for travelers. She covers her face; which marks her as a prostitute. She gets paid in kind, asking for a kid as her fee; a rather high price in a herding society, in which only the wealthy owner of numerous herds could afford to pay for a single sexual encounter. If the traveler does not have his cattle with him, he must give some valuables as a deposit, until the kid is delivered to the woman.

Though in this story the woman was not a real prostitute but Judah's widowed daughter-in-law, who had good reasons of seeking to trick Judah and become pregnant by him, she succeeds in impersonating a prostitute and her conduct can be assumed to be the real conduct expected of a prostitute in the society of the time.

A later Biblical story, in the Book of Joshua, a prostitute in Jericho named Rahab assisted Israelite spies with her knowledge of the current socio-cultural and military situation due to her popularity with the high-ranking nobles she serviced, among others. The spies, in return for the information, promised to save her and her family during the planned military invasion as long as she fulfilled her part of the deal by keeping the details of the contact with them secret and leaving a sign on her residence that would be a marker for the advancing soldiers to avoid. When the people of Israel conquered Canaan, she converted to Judaism and married a prominent member of the people.

SCIENCES

BRAIN

Much of the brain's physiological task involves receiving information from the rest of the body, interpreting that information, and then guiding the body's response to it. Types of input the brain interprets include odors, light, sounds, and pain. The brain also helps perform vital operations such as breathing, maintaining blood pressure, and releasing hormones (chemical signals that control certain cells and organs).

The brain is divided into sections. These sections include the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the diencephalon, and the brainstem. 

Each of these parts is responsible for certain portions of the brain's overall job. The larger parts are, in turn, divided into smaller areas that handle smaller portions of the work. Different areas often share responsibility for the same task.

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is responsible for memory, speech, the senses, emotional response, and more. It is divided into several sections called lobes. These lobes are referred to as the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital; each handles a specific segment of the cerebrum's jobs.

The cerebellum is below and behind the cerebrum and is attached to the brain stem. It controls motor function, the body's ability to balance, and its ability to interpret information sent to the brain by the eyes, ears, and other sensory organs.

The functions the brain stem governs include respiration, blood pressure, some reflexes, and the changes that happen in the body during what is called the “fight or flight” response. The brain stem is also divided into several distinct sections: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

The diencephalon is inside the cerebrum above the brain stem. Its tasks include sensory function, food intake control, and the body's sleep cycle. As with the other parts of the brain, it is divided into sections. These include the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus.

The brain is protected from damage by several layers of defenses. Outermost are the bones of the skull. Beneath the skull are the meninges, a series of sturdy membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord. Inside the meninges, the brain is cushioned by fluid.

Still, the brain can suffer damage, become diseased, or malfunction. These problems may include cancer, physical injuries such as skull fractures, and ruptures of blood vessels that supply the brain.

ENGLISH- FALSE FRIENDS

FALSE FRIENDS
They are called false friends or false cognates to the words to be written in the same way (or similar ) in Spanish are confused , but actually mean anything in English 

• to abet: instigar, ser cómplice de alguien (y no abeto, que se dice fir)
• an abstract: resumen (y no abstracto)
• to achieve: lograr (y no archivar, que se dice to file)
• accommodation: alojamiento, hospedaje (y no acomodamiento, que se dice arrangement)
• actual: real, efectivo (y no actual, que se dice current)
• actually: en realidad (y no actualmente, que se dice nowadays, at present)
• to advertise: anunciar (y no advertir, que se dice to warn)
• advice: consejos (y no aviso, que se dice warning, notice)
• ailment: enfermedad leve, achaque (y no alimento, que se dice food)
• apparel: ropa, vestimenta (y no aparato, que se dice apparatus, machine)
• application form: formulario de solicitud (y no formulario de aplicación)
• to apologise: pedir disculpas (y no apología, que se dice defence)
• to approve: estar de acuerdo, aceptar, aprobar una decisión (y no aprobar un examen, que se dice to pass an exam)
• apt: propenso (y no apto, que se dice qualified, able)
• argument: discusión, pelea (y no argumento de un libro/una película, que se dice plot)
• arena: estadio, plaza de toros (y no arena, que se dice sand)
• army: ejército (y no armada, que se dice navy)
• aspersion: calumnia (y no aspersión, que se dice sprinkling)
• assessment: evaluación (y no asesoría, que se dice consultancy)
• assessor: evaluador, tasador (y no asesor, que se dice advisor o consultant)
• to assist: ayudar (y no asistir a un lugar, que se dice to attend)
• to attain: lograr, conseguir (y no atar, que se dice to tie)
• attempt: intento (y no atentado, que se dice terrorist attack)
• attendance: asistencia (y no atención, que se dice attention)
• avocado: aguacate (y no abogado, que se dice lawyer)
• balloon: globo (y no balón, que se dice ball)
• bank: banco - la institución (y no banco de plaza, que se dice bench)
• bark: ladrar o ladrido (y no barco, que se dice ship)
• beef: carne vacuna (y no bife, que se dice steak)
• best: mejor (y no bestia, que se dice beast)
• billet: acuartelamiento, alojamiento militar (y no billete, que se dice ticket o note)
• billion: mil millones (y no billón, que se dice trillion)
• bizarre: estrafalario, extraño (y no bizarro, que se dice brave o gallant)
• body: cuerpo (y no boda, que se dice wedding)
• bomber: avión bombardero o persona que coloca bombas (y no bombero, que se dice fireman o firefighter)
• brave: valiente (y no bravo, que se dice fierce)
• camp: base militar o campamento (y no campo en general, que se dice field)
• can: lata o el verbo poder (y no cana, que se dice white hair)
• cap: gorra (y no capa, que se dice layer)
• career: carrera profesional, ocupación luego del estudio (y no carrera referida al curso universitario, que se dice degree)
• carpet: alfombra (y no carpeta, que se dice folder)
• cartoon: dibujos animados, tira cómica (y no cartón, que se dice cardboard)
• casual: fortuito, ocasional, informal, superficial (y no casual, que se dice accidental, chance)
• casualty: víctima o herido (y no casualidad, que se dice coincidence)
• cave: cueva (y no cavar, que se dice to dig)
• cellular: celular, relativo a la célula (y no teléfono celular, que se dice mobile telephone)
• chafed: rozado (y no chafado, que se dice crushed o flattened)
• cocoa: cacao (y no coco, que se dice coconut)
• collar: cuello de las prendas de vestir (y no collar, que se dice necklace)
• to collapse: hundirse, derrumbarse (y no colapsar, que se dice to bring to a standstill)
• college: facultad, colegio universitario (y no colegio, que se dice school)
• coloured: de color (y no colorado, que se dice red)
• to come: venir, llegar (y no comer, que se dice to eat)
• command: orden, mandato (y no comando, que se dice commando unit)
• commodity: mercancía o materia prima (y no comodidad, que se dice comfort)
• to complain: quejarse (y no complacer, que se dice to please)
• complexion: tez, tono de la piel (y no complexión, que se dice body type)
• to compromise: ceder, transigir, poner en peligro (y no compromiso, que se dice commitment, engagement o agreement)
• conductor: director de orquesta o cobrador (y no conductor, que se dice driver)
• confident: seguro de sí mismo (y no confidente, que se dice confidant)
• (to be) constipated: sufrir de estreñimiento (y no estar constipado, que se dice to have a cold/chill)

ENGLISH- CONDITIONAL 1,2,3

Conditional Clause and Main Clause

If I have enough money, conditional clause	I will go to Japan.     main clause
I will go to Japan, main clause	if I have enough money     conditional clause

First, Second, and Third Conditional

1. First conditional:	If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.
2. Second conditional:	If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.
3. Third conditional:	If I had had enough money, I would have gone to Japan.

Conditional clause	Main clause
1. If + Present Tense	will + inf / present tense / imperative
If you help me with the dishes (if + pres), I will help you with your homework. (will + inf) If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by three, the number is divisible by three (Pres. tense) If you see Mr Fox tonight, tell him I am ill. (imperative).
2. If + Past Tense	would + inf
3. If + Past Perfect Tense	would have + past participle
We do not normally use will or would in the conditional clause, only in the main clause.

Uses of the Conditional

1. First conditional
   1. Nature: Open condition, what is said in the condition is possible.
   2. Time: This condition refers either to present or to future time.
      e.g. If he is late, we will have to go without him.
      If my mother knows about this, we are in serious trouble.
   
   
2. Second conditional
   1. Nature: unreal (impossible) or improbable situations.
   2. Time: present; the TENSE is past, but we are talking about the present, now.
      e.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you.
      If I were you, I would tell my father.
      Compare: If I become president, I will change the social security system. (Said by a presidential candidate)
      If I became president, I would change the social security system. (Said by a schoolboy: improbable)
      If we win this match, we are qualified for the semifinals.
      If I won a million pounds, I would stop teaching. (improbable)
   
   
3. Third conditional
1. Nature: unreal
2. Time: Past (so we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.)
   e.g. If you had warned me, I would not have told your father about that party.(But you didn't, and I have).

REMEMBER!

1. The conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-clauses. EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be used in if-clauses.

e.g. If you will come this way, the manager will see you now.
I would be grateful if you would give me a little help.
(= ± please, come this way; please, give me...)

2. For the second conditional, were replaces was:

If I were a rich man...

3. After if, we can either use "some(-one, -where...)" or "any(-one, -where...).

If I have some spare time next weekend....or :
If I have any spare time...

4. Instead of if not, we can use unless.

e.g. I'll be back tomorrow unless there is a plane strike.
He'll accept the job unless the salary is too low.

5.There is a "mixed type" as well, for the present results of an unreal condition in the past:

If + Past Perfect - would + inf.
If you had warned me [then], I would not be in prison [now].

ENGLISH- REPORTED SPEECH

• Reported Statements

When do we use reported speech? Sometimes someone says a sentence, for example "I'm going to the cinema tonight". Later, maybe we want to tell someone else what the first person said.

Here's how it works:

We use a 'reporting verb' like 'say' or 'tell'. If this verb is in the present tense, it's easy. We just put 'she says' and then the sentence:

• Direct speech: “I like ice cream”.
• Reported speech: She says (that) she likes ice cream.

We don't need to change the tense, though probably we do need to change the 'person' from 'I' to 'she', for example. We also may need to change words like 'my' and 'your'.

But, if the reporting verb is in the past tense, then usually we change the tenses in the reported speech:

• Direct speech: “I like ice cream”.
• Reported speech: She said (that) she liked ice cream.

Reported Questions

So now you have no problem with making reported speech from positive and negative sentences. But how about questions?

• Direct speech: "Where do you live?"

How can we make the reported speech here?

In fact, it's not so different from reported statements. The tense changes are the same, and we keep the question word. The very important thing though is that, once we tell the question to someone else, it isn't a question any more. So we need to change the grammar to a normal positive sentence. A bit confusing? Maybe this example will help:

• Direct speech: "Where do you live?"
• Reported speech: She asked me where I lived.

Do you see how I made it? The direct question is in the present simple tense. We make a present simple question with 'do' or 'does' so I need to take that away. Then I need to change the verb to the past simple. 

Another example:

• Direct speech: "where is Julie?"
• Reported speech: She asked me where Julie was.

The direct question is the present simple of 'be'. We make the question form of the present simple of be by inverting (changing the position of)the subject and verb. So, we need to change them back before putting the verb into the past simple.